It’s time to eliminate marriage penalties in the U.S. tax code

It’s time to eliminate marriage penalties in the U.S. tax code

Marriage penalties in the U.S. tax code discourage family formation and upward mobility for low-income Americans.

It’s time to eliminate marriage penalties in the U.S. tax code

This article was originally published at Institute for Family Studies.

The U.S. individual income tax structure and the safety-net assistance system exact financial penalties on married couples, which worsen when children are in the family. The effect of these penalties is the opposite of what public policy should be. Research has established that society benefits immensely from stable and healthy marriages. This article focuses on U.S. Tax Code and restoring the income tax to its primary purpose while eliminating marriage penalties (it is excerpted from section 1 of a two-part policy brief on how to eliminate marriage penalties from the tax code and safety-net programs).

Remove Safety-Net Programs from the U.S. Tax Code

Of the federal and state agencies that run more than 80 federal programs intended to help low-income individuals and families, perhaps the worst administrator is the Internal Revenue Service (IRS) that runs several safety-net programs, including the Earned Income Tax Credit (EITC) that provided $64 billion in cash assistance to 23 million tax filers in 2024.

While many policymakers view the income tax system as an efficient way to dispense safety-net benefits, IRS performance leaves much to be desired.  A recent Wall Street Journal article listed the EITC with the second-highest improper payment rate—more than five times the average improper payment rate. The Journal’s article did not reveal anything new. The IRS also runs the program with the highest improper payment rate, the American Opportunity Tax Credit.

When it comes to marriage penalties, the income tax structure is a bad fit for distributing money to needy households. While there are tax filing statuses for married couples, heads of household, and single individuals, there is no option for unmarried couples. Consider an unmarried couple with two children. One partner can claim both children as head of household while the other files as a single person. Or they can split the children as heads of household. Either way, they will be treated differently than if they were married. 

Congress could create a new tax filing status to accommodate unmarried couples. However, it may be more trouble than it is worth. Unmarried couples run the gamut in financial and relational commitments, and using tax law to address the various situations is complicated and may be perceived as too intrusive for those who just want to pay their tax liability.

Besides, the IRS is set up for annual returns and refunds, not monthly payments. EITC recipients must wait until the following tax year for their benefits. Monthly payments would give assistance when needed, allow families to properly budget, and would be a more effective way to encourage employment, one of the goals of the program. 

The EITC had an advance payment feature that was repealed in 2010 due to poor participation and administrative problems. The system relied on employers making the monthly payments to their employees and then being reimbursed by the IRS, but the Government Accountability Office found IRS procedures to be ineffective with noncompliance rates of 80 percent. Although repealing the advance payment feature eliminated this extreme noncompliance rate, the IRS continues to struggle with taxpayer noncompliance with the EITC program.

Make Income Taxes Neutral to Marital Status

Removing safety-net programs from the tax system would allow Congress to focus on making the income tax marital status neutral. In 2017, Congress was successful in eliminating marriage penalties for single individuals who want to marry, provided they have no children and do not qualify for refundable tax credits.

However, marriage penalties remain for the rest of tax filers. For example, suppose a mom earns $20,000, a dad earns $30,000, and they have two children. Table 1 shows the simple tax liability before tax credits for tax year 2025 assuming that, as an unmarried couple, each parent claims one child and the standard deduction. The tax liability before tax credits is $750 if they live together unmarried but $2,000 if they are married, which means a marriage penalty of $1,250.  Even if one parent claims both children, there would still be a penalty.

The example in Table 1 is just one wage combination for a couple with two children. The Georgia Center for Opportunity ran 40,401 wage combinations for this couple if each partner claims one child on their taxes and found that 81% had a marriage penalty. The figure below shows the distribution of the penalties (in red), neutral outcomes (in gray), and the bonuses (in blue). 

One option Congress might consider to eliminate income tax marriage penalties is the flat tax, which treats all taxpayers the same regardless of marital status. The reason can be easily shown using mathematics because the flat tax follows the distributive law of multiplication (see full policy brief for more). 

Conclusion

The U.S. Tax Code is ill-suited for running safety-net programs without marriage penalties. Furthermore, the IRS has an awful record of improper payments and noncompliance when it comes to running its safety-net programs. Therefore, an important step to eliminate marriage penalties is to take those programs away from the IRS and give them to an agency that knows how to run safety-net programs.

Download the full policy brief for an explanation of how these other agencies can eliminate all marriage penalties in safety-net programs.

Image Credits: Canva, Georgia Center for Opportunity

4 surprising benefits of parental love that set children up for a flourishing life

4 surprising benefits of parental love that set children up for a flourishing life

Parental love helps children gain the emotional health, behavioral skills, and academic success that unlocks social mobility.

4 surprising benefits of parental love that set children up for a flourishing life

Key Points

  • Parental love plays a central role in children’s long-term development and life outcomes.
  • The bond between parents and children lays the groundwork for emotional health, social skills, and academic success—all of which are important factors in improving social mobility for kids.

Parental love is more than just affection—it’s a powerful force that can shape a child’s life in profound ways. Far beyond the hugs and bedtime stories, the bond between a parent and child lays the groundwork for emotional security, social skills, academic achievements, and even lifelong decision-making.

Think of it as building a foundation for the future. Parents who provide consistent love and support create an environment where children feel safe to grow, learn, and thrive. These positive relationships don’t just affect childhood—they set the stage for success and resilience well into adulthood. 

Parental love enables children to be at their best emotionally, socially, and academically 

But why is this connection so vital? And what does science say about the benefits of parental love? From boosting emotional health to improving academic success, the rewards are more surprising and far-reaching than you might think.

1. Emotional well-being and mental health

A child who feels loved and supported grows up with a strong sense of security and self-worth. This emotional foundation helps children manage stress and develop resilience during difficult times. Research shows that children with strong relationships with their parents are better adjusted emotionally and face fewer mental health challenges, such as anxiety and depression.

2. Behavioral regulation

Parental love plays a crucial role in teaching kids how to interact with the world. Through daily interactions, children learn emotional regulation, problem-solving, and conflict resolution skills. These lessons form the building blocks of self-control and appropriate social behavior, helping children grow into responsible adults.

3. Academic success

Children with engaged parents tend to do better in school. By being involved in their children’s education—whether it’s attending parent-teacher conferences, helping with homework, or simply being a source of encouragement—parents can spark a love of learning. The result? Higher grades, better school attendance, and a more motivated, confident student.

4. Prevention of risky behaviors

Strong parent-child relationships act as protective measures against risky behaviors, including substance abuse, delinquency, and teen pregnancy. When children feel connected to their parents, they’re more likely to seek parental guidance when facing tough decisions, reducing the likelihood of engaging in harmful activities.

Through GCO’s Raising Highly Capable Kids Program, communities can offer parents a safe, supportive place to learn how to nurture loving bonds at home. 

Through GCO’s Raising Highly Capable Kids Program, communities can offer parents a safe, supportive place to learn how to nurture loving bonds at home. 

Empowering parents to strengthen loving relationships is one of the best priorities a community can have

At the Georgia Center for Opportunity (GCO), we understand the critical role parents play in raising capable, confident kids. Our Raising Highly Capable Kids (RHCK) program focuses on empowering parents by teaching them the 40 Developmental Assets—a research-driven framework that fosters emotional and social growth in children. These assets cover essential aspects like support, empowerment, and positive identity, serving as the foundation for raising resilient kids.

RHCK has benefited parents like Brittany Moore, who found the workshop life-changing. The program provided her with practical tools, a renewed sense of purpose, and the confidence to handle conflicts.

“Parenting is one of the hardest yet most rewarding jobs, and there’s no shame in seeking support,” Brittany shared. She emphasizes that RHCK is more than just a workshop—it’s a welcoming community of people who understand the ups and downs of raising children. “You’ll walk away with valuable lessons, practical tools, and a renewed sense of confidence,” she said.

Through RHCK, parents receive tools and strategies to build loving, stable homes. Here’s how it works:

  • Workshops and classes: Parents participate in structured sessions that offer guidance on fostering healthy relationships and teaching critical life skills.
  • Hands-on support: Expert facilitators provide personalized support, helping parents identify areas of growth and build stronger connections with their children.
  • Community-building: RHCK creates a supportive community where parents can collaborate, share experiences, and learn from one another.

Interested in getting involved with RHCK? 

If you’re ready to grow stronger as a parent and learn how intentional, loving relationships can lead to transformational change in your family, we welcome you to join the RHCK program where you’ll find a safe, supportive environment to access the tools, strategies, and community needed to confidently tackle the ups and downs of parenting.

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Want our kids to be seen, heard, and valued? Get the community involved.

Want our kids to be seen, heard, and valued? Get the community involved.

The proven building blocks of child development can empower communities to get involved in helping parents raise highly capable kids.

Want our kids to be seen, heard, and valued? Get the community involved.

Key Points

  • Community is a powerful force in the journey of raising healthy, happy kids. Research shows that relationships with others, especially adults, shape who children become. 
  • A powerful tool for parents and communities is understanding the research-based building blocks of child development. 
  • Engaging with these building blocks empowers communities to better address the physical, emotional, and social needs involved in raising kids well. 

Research shows that children’s relationships with others—extended family members, caregivers, teachers, coaches, and the broader community—shape who they become as adults.

If these relationships are positive and nurturing, then kids learn that the world is safe and secure and that they are loved.

At the Georgia Center for Opportunity, we believe that community is a powerful force in the journey of raising healthy, happy kids.

What happens in homes and communities has the greatest impact on the outcomes of each person’s life. After all, families and neighborhoods are the first places where people learn to love and trust one another, to live in community, and to sacrifice for others.

This dynamic is especially important for children in difficult situations, whether it be poverty and or other disadvantages. Children thrive when they have access to nurturing relationships and supportive environments, which help the development of important life skills.

When these supports are lacking, children may face additional challenges, including mental health struggles, difficulty finding employment, and economic hardship. By giving parents and communities tools to address these needs, we can shape better outcomes for all children.

According to the Search Institute, young people need positive relationships with three or more adults outside of their family to help them become healthy, responsible, caring adults themselves. 

According to the Search Institute, young people need positive relationships with three or more adults outside of their family to help them become healthy, responsible, caring adults themselves. 

Children’s lives are formed in community 

“There is no power for change greater than a community discovering what it cares about.” (Margaret J. Wheatley)

While parents are the first and best teachers for their kids, children’s lives are shaped by many different people, places, and experiences within their community.

GCO’s Raising Highly Capable Kids (RHCK) program gives communities a resource that’s designed to involve parents, caregivers, teachers, and broader communities equipping kids with skills and behaviors that will carry them into a successful future.

RHCK teaches these through a research-based framework known as the 40 Developmental Assets. The effect of these developmental assets is even more powerful when whole communities understand and engage with them.

Young people need more relationships with positive adult role models for their development.

What happens when a community embraces the building blocks of raising highly capable kids? 

Shared responsibility: Involving the community ensures that children’s development and education is shared among the most important influences in kids’ lives—parents, educators, coaches, caregivers, and local organizations.

Holistic support: Community involvement provides access to a range of resources and support systems that can serve the physical, emotional, social, and cognitive needs that are essential to raising highly capable kids.

Diverse perspectives: Communities are rich in diversity—with individuals from different cultural, socioeconomic, and professional backgrounds. Involving the community brings together diverse perspectives and experiences, enriching the educational process and ensuring that it’s inclusive and culturally relevant.

Stronger networks: Community involvement forms connections between parents, educators, and community leaders, creating networks that are valuable sources of information and encouragement for parents as they navigate the challenges and joys of raising their kids.

Access to resources: Communities have access to a wide range of resources like educational programs, recreational facilities, health services, and social support networks. Community involvement ensures that parents and caregivers have access to resources that enhance their ability to support their children’s development.

Positive norms and values: Communities play a crucial role in shaping the norms, values, and expectations that influence child development. By involving the community in educational initiatives focused on the 40 developmental assets, we can promote positive norms, values, and expectations that prioritize the well-being and success of children and families.

Supportive environments: Communities help create a supportive and stable environment where parents and caregivers feel empowered and encouraged in their role as primary influencers in their children’s lives. This support can boost parental confidence and resilience—enabling them to overcome challenges and advocate effectively for their children’s needs.

Sustainable impact: Communities foster a sense of ownership and investment in the well-being of children and families. By engaging the community in educational initiatives focused on the 40 developmental assets, we can invest in the well-being of children and families in a way that leads to long-term impact for current and future generations.

Our Raising Highly Capable Kids program is designed to bring parents and communities together to fostering a supportive environments and a common goal of nurturing capable and resilient kids.

Our Raising Highly Capable Kids program is designed to bring parents and communities together to fostering a supportive environments and a common goal of nurturing capable and resilient kids.

Highly capable communities lead to highly capable kids 

Our world is marked by constant change and uncertainty. And kids today are often pulled in directions that their parents and grandparents can barely fathom.

Communities coming together to prioritize family health and overall well-being of the parent-child relationship has never been more important in raising highly capable kids who will lead purpose-driven, meaningful lives.

The goal of RHCK is to empower anyone who works with kids and youth—including parents, teachers, coaches, mentors, church and business leaders—to pool collective resources, knowledge, and experiences. This type of collaboration creates a support network to raise the next generation to become valued, flourishing members of the community.

Whether it’s through RHCK or another opportunity, the reality on the ground remains the same: Children’s growth and development is shaped by those closest to them.

By reaching into homes, schools, and faith-based groups, we can ensure communities are nurturing places where families can thrive and future generations have good opportunities for enriching relationships, meaningful work, and better quality of life.

Marriage Rates in Georgia Are Down. But Marriage Still Matters For Quality of Life and Upward Mobility.

Marriage Rates in Georgia Are Down. But Marriage Still Matters For Quality of Life and Upward Mobility.

Marriage rates in Georgia are down, which is a factor to watch for overall well-being.

Marriage Rates in Georgia Are Down. But Marriage Still Matters For Quality of Life and Upward Mobility.

Key Points

  • Georgia has seen a decline in marriage rates, mirroring a national trend. Only 30% of Georgians have been married at least once, and U.S. marriage rates have fallen by nearly 60% over the past 50 years.
  • Despite these trends, marriage remains a significant predictor of adult well-being, more so than education, race, age or gender. Married individuals often report higher happiness and satisfaction levels, and benefits include emotional stability, financial security, and social support.
  • We must address economic, education, and social safety-net barriers to marriage while creating a supporting environment that fosters marriage and family formation.

    Recent reports, including a piece from Axios, have highlighted a concerning trend in Georgia—declining marriage rates.

    According to data from the American Community Survey, only 30% of Georgians have been married at least once in their lives. This is indicative of a larger national trend: The marriage rate across the U.S. has fallen by nearly 60% over the past 50 years.

    While societal pressures to marry have lessened and many young people doubt the benefits of marriage, this decline raises important questions about the impact on individual well-being and societal mobility.

    Marriage rates in Georgia are a leading factor in quality of life

    Helping people form healthy, committed relationships is a key pillar of the Georgia Center for Opportunity’s mission to help all Georgians flourish. Relationships are essential to well-being in general, but marriage has a particular impact on the quality of life and upward mobility for men, women, and children.

    Quality of life

    Marital status is one of the strongest predictors of adult well-being, surpassing other factors like education, race, age, and gender. According to the Institute for Family Studies and Gallup, married individuals often report higher levels of happiness and satisfaction compared to their unmarried peers. This isn’t just about companionship—marriage can provide emotional stability, financial security, and social support, all of which contribute to a better quality of life.

    Upward mobility

    Marriage also plays a critical role in economic mobility. Couples often benefit from dual incomes, shared resources, and consolidated expenses, making it easier to save and invest in the future. This financial stability can lead to better opportunities in terms of education, homeownership, and overall wealth accumulation. Essentially, marriage can act as a catalyst for achieving a higher economic status and breaking free from cycles of poverty.

    Benefits for children

    Children raised in two-parent, married families often experience greater stability and economic advantages, contributing significantly to their overall well-being. Additional research from the Institute for Family Studies shows that children who live in households with married parents experience more financially secure environments, less conflict, and more parental support.

    Marital status is key factor in personal well-being and quality of life.

    According to polling from Gallup, married people report higher levels of happiness and life satisfaction. This is another indicator of how essential relationships are for personal well-being and quality of life. 

    Marital status is a key factor for personal well-being and quality of life.

    According to polling from Gallup, married people report higher levels of happiness and life satisfaction. This is another indicator of how essential relationships are for personal well-being and quality of life. 

    Certain barriers in Georgia make marriage and its benefits hard to pursue

    Despite marriage’s benefits, Georgia has several barriers that discourage marriage as a path to fulfilling relationships and flourishing lives. Educational challenges and a social safety net that frequently discourages marriage are a couple of significant roadblocks that can make it harder for people to pursue marriage.

    Educational challenges

    Educational attainment is another significant barrier. Those with higher levels of education are more likely to marry, but educational opportunities are not evenly distributed across the state. Addressing these disparities could encourage higher marriage rates and, consequently, greater upward mobility.

    A social safety net that punishes marriage

    Another significant barrier to marriage in Georgia is the “marriage penalty” embedded within many social safety net programs. The term refers to the phenomenon where low-income individuals or couples may actually lose financial benefits by getting married.

    Programs such as Medicaid, housing assistance, and food stamps often have income thresholds that discourage marriage. When two low-income individuals marry, their combined income might exceed these thresholds, leading to a reduction or complete loss of benefits—creating a “benefits cliff.”

    This financial disincentive can make marriage less appealing for low-income individuals who rely on these crucial programs to make ends meet. By losing access to necessary support, the economic stability that marriage can potentially offer is compromised, perpetuating a cycle where the cons outweigh the pros.

    Addressing these safety-net barriers is essential for fostering an environment where marriage can thrive and contribute positively to individual and societal well-being.

    The way forward

    While the decline in marriage rates in Georgia is a complex issue influenced by various societal and economic factors, it’s essential to recognize the underlying benefits of marriage. Beyond the romantic ideals, marriage plays a pivotal role in enhancing quality of life and facilitating upward mobility.

    To counteract the downward trend, it’s necessary to address the barriers that discourage marriage and create a more supportive environment for couples.

    Op-Ed: This Father’s Day, men are struggling. We need to help them

    Op-Ed: This Father’s Day, men are struggling. We need to help them

    Media statement, in the news, Georgia news, ga news

    Op-Ed: This Father’s Day, men are struggling. We need to help them

    RANDY HICKS,  OPINION CONTRIBUTOR

    As we celebrate Father’s Day on June 16, it’s time for a renewed call to help men flourish in modern-day America. It’s well past time to begin addressing what has emerged as a deep problem in the United States: Aimless, lonely, detached men. The challenge is most deeply experienced in poor, low-income, and working-class communities.

    Consider that 6 million prime-age, able-bodied men between the ages of 25 and 54 are absent from the labor force – even in today’s economy with such low unemployment rates last seen in the 1960s. Even many men who are working are underemployed or in low-skill jobs. In 2021, for example, approximately 6.6% of unrelated individuals in the labor force for 27 weeks or more – many of whom are from working-class communities – were classified as working poor, meaning their incomes fell below the official poverty level despite their work efforts.

    Read the full opinion in The Center Square. 

    The Marriage Penalty: A Barrier to Relational Support and Better Opportunities for the Poor

    The Marriage Penalty: A Barrier to Relational Support and Better Opportunities for the Poor

    The marriage penalty is a government tax policy that increases the tax burden on low-income households trying to pursue better lives and economic mobility through marriage.

    The Marriage Penalty: A Barrier to Relational Support and Better Opportunities for the Poor

    Key Points

    • A lack of connection and supportive relationships, especially at home, is a driving factor of long-term poverty. Marriage is one type of relationship that research has shown to be a building block of stable lives and communities.

    • Communities in Georgia and beyond are struggling with a barrier called the marriage penalty—a government tax policy that forces couples to pay more in taxes as a result of increasing household income through marriage. 

    • The marriage penalty tax discourages those in poverty from improving their financial situation and forming strong support systems at home.

    Strong relationships are a cornerstone of vibrant communities. Of the many types of relationships in day-to-day life, research shows that marriage is one of the most important for empowering individuals, regardless of race or circumstance, to avoid long-term poverty and find stability and opportunity. 

    But communities in Georgia and beyond are struggling to reap the benefits of marriage—and a big reason is a government tax policy called the marriage penalty.  

    Why does marriage matter for those in poverty?

    We celebrate marriage because it provides people with relational connection and support. When we think about helping someone escape or avoid long-term poverty, we might assume that a person’s economic needs are most important to address. But that would be missing a critical piece of the puzzle. 

    A lack of connection and supportive relationships, especially at home, is a driving factor of long-term poverty. 

    Those in poverty often need this relationship and support system to a greater level, which is why we at GCO emphasize the benefits marriage offers for individuals, children, and communities. Higher marriage rates tend to go hand-in-hand less crime, better education outcomes, less child poverty, and more upward mobility

    Of course, not every person will get married, but the impact that close, healthy relationships have on the stability of lives and communities cannot be understated.

    The impact that close, healthy relationships have on the stability of lives and communities cannot be understated. In fact, it’s one of the biggest factors in helping people overcome long-term poverty.

    The impact that close, healthy relationships have on the stability of lives and communities cannot be understated. In fact, it’s one of the biggest factors in helping people overcome long-term poverty.

    Understanding the marriage penalty tax

    A marriage penalty occurs when a couple faces higher taxes as a result of marrying and filing jointly. Higher taxes are linked to higher income, so it might seem like the marriage penalty is simply an inconvenience for households with high enough earnings to afford it. 

    But the marriage penalty poses a significant problem for low-income households, as well. It creates a financial risk if one or both spouses are receiving government benefits and getting married would increase household income. That increase can trigger a sudden loss in benefits—even if households aren’t fully earning enough to offset the loss. This scenario holds particularly true for couples who earn a modest income—those in the working class or lower middle class earning around $28,000 to $55,000 a year.

    Marriage penalties apply at the federal tax level, but there are 15 states that also have marriage penalties built into their state income tax brackets. Georgia is one of them.

    Georgia is one of 15 states that have a marriage penalty built into the state income tax structure.

    Marriage penalties stifle financial independence

    The gap between the “haves” and the “have nots” has increased when it comes to marriage. While the wealthy and upper middle class continue to marry at high rates, marriage is far less common among the poor, working class, and lower middle class.

    According to data from the 2015 American Community Survey, 56% of adults between the ages of 18 and 55 are married who fall into the upper middle class. That contrasts with 39% of those in the working class and just 26% of those who are poor.

    There are many reasons why marriage rates have declined for these groups, but in the realm of government policy, the marriage penalty is one of the most discouraging factors. 

    For example, a single mom with a few kids would need to find a spouse who earns a significantly higher salary than her in order to overcome the loss of benefits if they chose to get married. In some cases, the penalty is so extreme that she would need to marry someone earning more than $40 per hour—or more than $80,000 annually if full time—to recover from the loss in safety-net benefits like food stamps, refundable tax credits, and medical assistance.

    Through a focus group organized by GCO and the Institute for Family Studies, we met Tiana, who experienced this situation firsthand. “I chose not to marry,” she told us. “For one, I get a lot of assistance. I have a disabled child. So being if I did marry or put any other type of income in, I would not qualify for anything.”

    More than one-in-10 unmarried Americans whose income falls below the median reported they were not married for fear of losing “access to government benefits,” according to a recent IFS/Wheatley Institution survey. The research indicates that penalties can amount to between 10% and 30% of household income for many families in the poor and working-class income brackets.

    Marriage penalties discourage strong support systems at home

    The bottom line is that the marriage penalty harms many of the poor who are working and attempting to make a better life for themselves and their families. It does so by discouraging the very thing we know impacts poverty the most—family and relationship formation. 

    Fewer marriages is bad news for children: Social science research shows, time and again, that children do best in a stable, married two-parent household.

    Married households have the lowest poverty rate of any household configuration at just 6.3% in 2020. Meanwhile, one-in-three children live in a single-parent household today, 80% of those households being headed by a single mom. And the unfortunate reality is that single-mom households are the most likely to be in poverty of any family structure in the U.S.—a staggering 34% in 2020, accounting for over 5.1 million children in poverty.

    Solutions to eliminate the marriage penalty tax

    The ultimate solution to eliminate marriage penalties is federal action to reform how government benefits are structured. However, states can take the lead as they streamline eligibility standards and form individual action plans.

    That’s why GCO is hard at work at in Georgia and across the country to educate lawmakers on the perils of benefits cliffs and possible fixes. 

    At the end of the day, however, government reforms are only part of the solution. The institutions of marriage and family are suffering not only from government obstacles, but also societal challenges. Civil society organizations—such as churches, nonprofits, and schools—are critical avenues for local support and examples of how to cultivate healthy family relationships. While this is not something that government programs can accomplish, classes and curriculum may be incorporated into case management.

    Americans deserve a strong safety net that serves as a bridge out of poverty. But no government program or policy should be a barrier to the relationships needed in the places where lives are formed and transformed— in homes and communities.

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